9/21/94:
Lecture
Baptism:
Contemporary N. American context:
'Post-Constantinian'. There has been a 'break-down' in the heightened position
of the church in the state. Sometimes,
also called 'Post-Christian'. There is pluralism. The church used to be able to depend on the
culture for knowledge of Xian faith. Constantine
period: Xians were 'born, not made'.
Now, Xians are 'made, not born'; no longer a matter of birth, but of
choice. So, the church needs to think
more of processes of formation: how does one become a Xian? Questions of initiation. What are the Xian lit. practices which are
releant in this process? How are they
learned? So, not enough just to have the
ceremony aspect of baptism. A crisis in
our eccl. identity has brought about inc'd interest in the liturgies and links
to an ecclesiology.
Baptism: the ritual action by which
a person becomes a member of the Xian community. Bap. as initiation shows the
influ. of Anthropology. Bap. initiates
in that it makes a Xian. Bap. is part of
a larger ritual process which has broken down. In early Xianity, there was a
process involved (e.g. prep and follow-up to the ritual event).
In the early 1900's, Arnold van
Gennep wrote The Rites of Passage(1909).
He argues that there is a similar structure in any point of life where
one's status changes which is ritualized.
The structure: separation (from former state or way of being),
transition , and incorporation (into a new state of being). Victor Turner wrote The Ritual
Process(1969). He uses 'liminality' to
describe the transitional state (Latin: limen: doorway). Pre-liminal and post-liminal stages
also. Schatterer: there is not much of
the separation phase in Xian ritual.
Turner characterizes the liminal phase by communitas (a mode of social
relationship which stands in relation to two other relatively structured
modes). So, liminal period characterized
by the lack of social structure such as status. This period is that of
symbol/metaphor.
The transition phase of Baptism was
called the Catechumenate. The enrollment
in this is the separation. All three
phases (even 'separation') are part of an initiation.
Bap. is about the three phases, so
is a process. Today's problem: what
happens to the liminal stage when there is not process (e.g. stages left
out--separation). Bap. is itself a
transitional activity. The Ch. is a
liminal, transitional, community. How is
perpetual communitas/liminality maintained?
The Eucharist is a repeated ritual of initiation. Through it, it perpetuates our liminal
status--our state of transition.
Rituals are formative and
expressive.
9/26/94:
Lecture
Baptism:
The N.T.: Bap. of J. C. by John.
Also, see Acts: selection of one to replace Judas. One qualification being
having been with Jesus from the beg. of his ministry (J.C.'s baptism). John baptised based on repentence and an
eschat. hope. J.C.'s bap. supercedes
that of John's bap. See Mk 1:7. Through
Jesus, the spirit of God could be recieved by all. In the (O.T.) scriptural tradition, baptism
was only available to an elect. In the
prophets, however, bap. seen as not limited to an elect. Xian bap. takes on the
themes of John's bap. and transforms them (e.g. repentance to
forgiveness). Unlike John's bap., Xian
bap was initiatory. John's bap. was done
for the sake of individuals. Xian bap.,
was initiatory, collectivist in nature.
Where did John's baptism come from?
Three theories: Related to the ritual washings (ablutions) of the Qumran community where the Essenes (a communitarian
Jewish sect) lived. They practiced daily immersions for the purpose of
purification before the evening community meal. Initiation not involved. Also, the rite was not like that of John's.
Secondly, the practice of proselyte baptism of
the Jews: the initiatory bap. of converts to Judiasm. But, this comes from Rabbinic Judiasm (after
70 A.D.). Possible that Xian bap. influenced this practice, rather than vice
versa.
The formative period of Judiasm
(Rabbinical) was during the first century.
It codified what it meant to be a Jew.
Xianity is in a formative period at the same time. So, Judiasm as we know it today, is more like
a sibling than a parent to Christianity.
Thirdly, and the most likely, the
ritual washings for purification in the O.T.
Levitical immersion for purification.
Yet, unlike John's, these were self-administered. John used this
purification immersion vis a vis preparation for a new age to come.
The N.T. presumed that bap.
occurred. So, difficult to know what the
rite was from the N.T. Still, indirect
info. Three categories: Bap. by John to
Jesus, Bap. by Jesus before the resurr, and Bap. after the completion of
Jesus's ministry. The fullness of Xian
bap. is only in the former. Concerning
the first (John bap.s Jesus): laid over the historical event, xian bap. as
practiced when the N.T. was written. So,
we see both reflected. Uniqueness of J.C.'s bap: water and spirit. Xian bap.
follows this.
Jn indicates that Jesus bap.'d. Yet, in ch. 4, said that only his disciples
bap.d. The synop. gospels ignore the
issue. Why? It is generally presumed today that Jn was
accurate. Such bap.s not related to the
gift of the spirit.
Xian bap. (after the resurr): Jesus
pours out his spirit on his disciples at pentacost. Xian bap. is Christological. Done in the name of Jesus. To be associated
with Jesus; an acceptance of God's will as shown in Jesus; a willingnesss to
'put on' Christ. Secondly, Xian bap. is pneumatological (spirit). Related to the gift of the H.S. Themes: Repentance, forgiveness, and
spirit. Thirdly, Xian bap. is paschal (Gk: Pascha -passover). It inserts the Xian in Christ's own process
from death to life. see romans 6: buried
in Christ so can rise to new life. In
the mystery religions, the initiate is identified with the hero of the
story. See Isis
cult. The evidence of the mystery
religions came after Christ. So,
causality difficult to establish.
Fourthly, Xian bap. is eschatological. The spirit was promised to come at the end of
the ages. Xian bap.: the spirit given is
the first fruit of his parousia (the second coming). Fifthly, it is ecclesiological. Shows the
community that is a witness to what God is doing. In the N.T., Xian bap. is portrayed in these
terms. Xian bap. can mean any or all of
these themes.
The rite of bap. based on the
N.T. It has been seen as a process of
teaching that leads to a bath. See Acts
8: 26--Phillip baptized a unich.
Teaching followed by a baptism.
Cavanoff sees the fund.str. as the relation of the proclamation of faith
(preaching and conversion), the outpouring of water, and the outpouring of
spirit. See Acts 2: proclamation by
Peter, outpouring of water, and the promise of the gift of the spirit. Result:
life within the apostolic community.
Yet, no description of the rite in the N.T. Writings on it began in the second
century. Regional variations. Yet, certain elements evident in the N.T.: it
is something received by someone else.
Reception of gift signified by such an administration. A one-time rite; nothing in the N.T.
indicates that it can be repeated. It is
esp. clear that there was a washing with water either by immersion (suggested by the term 'bap.' itself and also by Paul's
lang of 'buried with Christ) or by
affusion(a pouring of water). Bap.
is done in the name of Jesus--but it is not clear if this is a formula or
whether it reflects regional traditions.
In Acts, a laying on of hands, assoc'd with the gift of the spirit. Was this universal or reflective of a local
trad.? Yet, it spread. Images in the
N.T. Cause or effect of the rite. E.g.
annointing with oil. See Jn. Such
annointing connotes the practice in the O.T. on priests and kings. Also connected with taking a bath. Not clear if this practice was in N.T. times.
Probably not. Further, is Paul's 'sealing
with the H.S.' mean the sign of the cross on the forehead? Probably not; the rite probably
followed. Finally, immages of stripping
(Galacians and Ephesions) and clothings. Is this illustrative of a practice of
changing clothes. But, also possible that
these images became the basis for later Xian rite.
Infant baptism: N.T. is
inconclusive. Much of it presumes adults
as adults were those who were converted. Yet, Act 16:13--bap. of a household.
Possibly children. p. 149 in Xian Sources : Tertellian wrote on post
bap. sin. So dangerous to be bap.'d
early. This suggests that someone had been bap.'g infants. It also suggests
that bap. was delayed not (only) out of arguments against infant bap. This was
in the third century. It is possible
that there were regional differences. In
practice, mostly adults were bap.'d throughout the fourth century.
The
rationale for infant baptism was formally given in the sixteenth century. That for delayed baptism was formally given
in the third century. This does not necessarily imply changes of practice.
9/28/94:
Lecture
Baptism:
Bet.
N.T. and the Fourth Century.
Sources:
The Didache, from Syria
in late first century/early second. Also, Justin Martyr's First Apology.
Rome , Mid
Second century. Also, Tertillian's Baptismo and de
Corona. N. Africa . Early third century. Also, Hippolydus's Apostolic Trad., Rome , early third
century. Also, Cyprian, in North
Africa in the middle of the third cent. Also, Didascalia Apostles, Syria , early
third century. Also, Acts of Thomas , Syria
Yet,
even in early Xianity, teaching and bath were shared. In this sense, compare the documents which come
out of the same region. E.g. Rome and N. Africa become Western Latin Xianity.
The
Didache:
A
lot of Jewish elements. The document: a
section of moral instruction: a way of life and of death. Then, on bap. Then,
the Eucharist, fasting, prayer, leadership, and conduct.
On
bap.: a period of instruction. a fast by not only the baptised, but others as
well. Then bap. in running water in name of Father, Son, and H.S. A formula
that was said? This account is similar
to that in Mt. 23. Could be a common oral
source. A preference for living water -from a natural source. If not, pour
water on the head. Some of Syria
is a desert. So, a varieties of ways,
but more than a sprinkling. No anointing
or laying on of hands. In the West,
these practices become considered a separate sacrament. In the Didache, no confirmation mentioned.
The Eucharist is for the baptised only.
Justin's
First Apology:
Beyond
the second century, more than a focus on the water rite itself. Two different structures: Syrian: Anointing,
bap., euch. The anointing is more imp.
than the water bap. In this process, anointing is not exclusively done as
pre-bap. rite. E.g. it was done in
exorcisms. The future of this is in the Monphysite (non-Chalcedonian) churches
-e.g. Coptic, Etheopian, Arminian, and Syrian churches. These churches believe
that J.C. had one (divine) nature.
Graeco-Roman: bap., anointing, and euch.
Roman and Byzantine rites follow this pattern.
Hippolytus's
Ap. Tradition:
A
document that was reconstructed from a variety of manuscripts which shared
certain pieces. Roman, early third
century. Rome
was a diverse city. Relation of his
document to actual practice is not clear. But it corresponds to later Roman
practice. Distinctive Roman practices in it.
Instruction.
Admission to the catecuminate by sponsors. A concern for avoiding public
scandal. Inquiries made on the candidates. Certain professions not allowed
which involve idolitry (theatre, teaching mythology, sculptor), sexual
immortality. There is a concern for social convention.
Phases:
The
Catechumenate.
Stage
1=hearer or the word for three years.
Separated, private prayer. Not give
the peace. The teacher lays hands on them in dismissing them from the prayer
sessions..
Stage
2= chosen (electi).
Hearers of the gospel. Daily laying of hands.
A
period of purification and separation.
Good works sought.
Rites
of Initiation
preliminary exorcism on Saturday. A
vigil through the night when read to and instructed. Not clear that this is only during Holy Week.
Brought offerings for the Euch (as did others). No extra gifts. Early Sunday morning (3 a.m.), a prayer over
the water. Moving water--poured over a
font and prayed over. Take off clothes. Infant/child bap. The Bishop prays over
oils of thanksgiving and of exorcism.
These are preparatory actions.
renounce satin. Then oil applied. A statement of confession
of belief. A series of questions. The
source of the apostles creed. A three-fold interrogation. Then, a three-fold immersion
or pouring. Then a first anointing.
10/5/94:
Lecture
Baptism:
Hippolytus:
see outline (handout).
Epiclesis: an invocation of the
spirit.
The laying on of hands and the
anointing with oil in the church after the two anointings at the baptism is the
forerunner of Confirmation. The way the church receives the newly baptized; the
people did not witness the actual bap.[1]
A baptismal euch: different:
includes a cup of milk and honey.
Tertullan:
no third 'confirmation' anointing.
Otherwise, similar to Hippolytus.
The
primary pattern of bap. in east awa west: bap., anointing/laying hands,
euch. In the East, the Anointing, or
chrismation or chrism, is of the holy spirit, whereas in the West the H.S. is
moreso in the laying on of hands. Some
eastern churches including an initial anointing. Connected with the O.T. Eg. David.
So, the other pattern is: anointing, bap. and euch. This is closer to the Jewish understanding of
anointing.
How
the structure in Hipolutus has been formalized.
In the beg. of the fourth century, this can be seen. E.g. Bap. attached to Easter. Prep. stages for bap. are attached to the
prep. for Easter(Lent). The former gains
formalization by its afixation to the latter.
On
sources for understanding the content of this process. There are several baptismal
Catecheses: catechetical lectures(given before bap.), mystagogical catecheses
(given after bap., on the mysteries themselves). Also, Egeria's description can be
useful. Third, a set of related
documents : the Gelasian sacramentary and Ordo XI(The Roman bap. lit.--related
to the Gelasion sacramentary) and the Ordines Romani (descriptions of Roman
rites). On this third set, a time of the sixth to eighth century.
The
admission to the caechuminate was ritualized.
Sign of cross, salt in mouth, and laying on of hands. A formal giving of
names. This was ritualized at the beginning of lent. The scrutinies were
exorcisms on those preparing for bap.
Such folks were called 'electi', 'competentes', photizomenoi (the
illuninated--used in the East). Tertullian, from Rome , referred to it as illuminani
(illumination). In the Gelasian Sacramentaries, the scrutinies were related to
certain weeks during lent. Exorcisms with laying on of hands, sign of cross on
head, prayers for the preservation of the person.
Also, the traditiones (traditio; to
hand over): Handing over the creed. The
creed was part of the Catechetical lectures.
Here, that instruction has become a rite: solumnly handing over the
creed to those who are to be baptised. The creed is told to the candidate while
hand placed on his or her head.
Following which, an explanation of the creed. This ritual came from when
adults were baptized. Then, on the Sat.
morn, a redditio, or giving back, of the creed.
The infants couldn't say it, so it was said for them by a deacon. Likewise with the Gospels (beg. and portions
of).
Schatterer: Bap. was regarded as a
public and liturgical process.
In
the West, the disintegration of the instruction, anointing, bap. and euch.
process. Infant baptism was one
cause. By the sixth century, mostly
infant bap. Esp. in West because view of
bap.to remedy the original sin taught by Augustine.[2] Also, further disintegration in the West when
the episcopal anointing and hands remains but priests take over the other
duties such as instruction and the baptism. The cultprit was the increaseing
size of the church. The bishop did what
came to be the confirmation (to preserve the episcopal link with bap.) Bap. and
Confirmation became separated in time.
Fewer of the baptized became confirmed.
Then, when communion was only in one kind to the laity, the species
given to infants (wine) was taken away so infants were not given
communion. So, Bap. and Euch. became
sep. for infants. So, bap. as an infant,
first communion at age seven(age of reason), and confirmation at age 12. So, the unity of the bap. process broke down
due to infant bap. and communion in one kind.
In the East, the unity of the rite
is preserved (even for an infant) and the episcopal link broken. Infants are
bap.'d, communed, and confirmed at the same time.
10/10/94:
Lecture
Baptism:
The
Reformation Period: Apart from the Anabaptism trad., much is carried over from
the medieval period. Yet, a
simplification of the rite. Esp. the
rites in the making of the catechumate.
They were done then done at the church, closer to the bap. rite. Simplified because believed that they took
away from the main 'bap' rite. For
example, Luther's Taufbuchlien
(1523). He maintains pre and post bap.
anointing. Much of the pre-bap. rites retained.
But, he said it was unnecessary.
The focus is on the rite with the water.
In the second ed., that which was said to be unnecessary was
removed. He introduced a 'flood prayer',
based on the prayer over the water at the Easter Vigil.
The
desire to simplify the rite is not merely a fear of ceremony, but has to do
with the relation bet. scripture and worship: desire to have worship tied to
scripture. For ex., the water and the
triune words of administration (in name of Father,...). From Mt.
This approach is congruent with Aquinus' view of what makes a sacrament:
it needs a matter and a form. The matter
of bap. was water and the form was the triune name. This is the least that must be present for it
to be a sacrament. Shattauer: a problem
in this: that which is essential is depended upon for the entire rite. The essential is not the same necessarily as
what should be done in a rite.
Calvin:
bap. not private, but be done in the assembly.
Bap. as initiation into the society of the church. A defense of infant bap. in incorporating
members into the church. Calvin denied the practice of lay baptisms because the
church could not be present. He, like, Luther,
eliminated the 'unnecessary' preliminary stages of the rite. Emph. on infant baptism.
For
Lutherans, Anglicans and Romans, a large font continued to be used. Bap. by
immersion was believed to better signify the death (drowning) to sin. This is related to the story of the
flood. Bap. is a type of the flood
inwhich our sinful selves are drowned. Also present in the crossing of the Red Sea . Also, Paul: dying and rising with Christ. In the
Roman Tridentine ritual in the wake of the reformation, more uniformity in the
rite. Immersion preferred. In arguing
for immersion, it is not assumed. A
trend away from it had developed?
Parents concerned about their infants being dipped. So, the practice of
immersion is apparently giving way to convenience.
Calvin
didn't care as much about the mode. So,
affusion was the practice. Also, many of
the English puritans did this.
The
Anabaptists: unlike the above, the reforms here were not done with the approval
of civil authorities. Anabaptism began
in Switzerland . Connected to Zwingli, though he did not go
along with them. It spread to Austria and the Netherlands . Insist on the faith of the believers. Infant baptism is rejected. Bap. follows from faith. This was the only scriptural baptism. No support for infant bap. in scripture. Bap.
is an expression of faith, rather than an action of God related to the external
act of the sacrament. The action of God
happens internally. So, bap. was viewed
by the anabaptists themselves to be no longer a sacrament (an external action
of God), but is an expression of faith.
Roman Catholics, viewing the essentials of a sacrament as matter and
form (which the anabaptists retained), would view the anabaptist baptism as a
sacrament. The anabaptists thus added
'intention' to matter and form to the essentials of a sacrament (although they
wouldn't necessarily admit to this). They tended to practice affusion. They practiced a re-baptism. Hubmaier, in Waldshut, re-baptised 300
followers with a milk pale in 1549. The
English anabaptists prefer immersion.
In
medieval times, infant bap. was followed by first communion at age seven, which
was followed by some by confirmation at age twelve. Among the reformation traditions, infant bap.
followed by a catechesis prep. (a new emph. on instruction), followed by a
public profession of faith and/or confirmation
with communion at that time.
Martin Bucer best represents this pattern. Bucer, in the Ch. of England, de-emph'd the
public profession of faith and emph'd the confirmation where the Bishop
officiated. The confirmation was related
to the first communion, making confirmation a prereq. to coming to the
communion.
Luther
wasn't interested in Confirmation.
Zwingli abolished it. Calvin and
English puritans (presbyterians) emph'd a profession of faith and did away with
the Confirmation.
The
insistance on bap. as a corporate act reasserted the ecceleastical context for
bap. among the reformed and
Anglicans. For Luther, bap. as a ground
of Xian life. For Luther, Xian life is dying and rising with Christ. Bap. signifies this.
10/17/94:
Lecture
Baptism:
The
modern rites: attempts to put together an integrated bap. rite: bap. in water,
anointing/hands, and eucharist. These
may be separated in time. There are some
compromises in these attempts. Also, a
trend toward adult prep. Eg. RCIA (Roman), BOS (Book of Occasional Services),
1979, 1988 (Epis), OSB (Lutherian). Also
see Robert Weber, Celebrating our Faith.
See also Gal Ramshaw, Alternative
Features for Worship.
Baptism, Eucharist, and Ministry, 1980's
(BEM): an ecumenical document from a multilateral dialogue under the World
Council of Churchs (Faith and Order dept.). Ecumenical convergence regarding
those issues.
Eucharist:
In
the East, when the H.S. is invoked, Christ is said to be present in the host;
not so in the West.
In
the Jewish sense of 'remembrance', making the past present is included. So, not just a memorial. Childs: No; rather,
the Jewish view of a memorial was not to transcend time and make a past event
present or going back to the past. Instead, it was to put the past on a
trajectory into the present.
The
Eucharist is the culmination of the process of initiation. It is the way the Xian community marked its
assembly. Xians had their own distinctive assemblies. To manifest the Spirit's activity. Assembly: at the essence of Xianity. The Greek word for church: ecclesia, means
'gathering'. A notion that God is
calling people out and into an assembly of the eschatological community. Shatterar's assp: can't really be Xian out
of an assembly(includes teaching, sharing bread, praying).
N.T.:
Paul notes that the eucharist was regularly done at Corinth .
In the N.T. period, difficult to know how often Xians assembled.
Eventually, Sunday was a fixed day of assembly, but not clear if this was in
N.T. times. By 150, Justin Martyr gives
an account of worship at Rome :
A Sunday assembly, where writings of the apostles are read. The Gospels and the
Prophets of the O.T. Then, the president
gives a discourse. Then, prayer, ending with the sharing of the kiss of peace. Then, wine and water (it was a social
convention to add water to wine) and bread are brought up and presented. Thanks are given (a prayer of thanksgiving by
the president), then the elements are distributed by all present and some not
present (via deacons). Then, a
collection taken from those who are wealthy for those in need. Not clear if the
collection is a liturgical act. Yet, it
was part of the assembly. A basic
outline of the Xian liturgy: combines both word and sacrament. What are the origins for it? Some argue that they have separate
origins. Gregory Dix, in The Shape of the Liturgy, argues that
the word synaxis is modelled after the synogogue liturgy. The meal portion was modelled after Jewish
religious meals. Others argue for the
unity of the two parts. Cullman, in Early
Xian Worship, for example, points to N.T. accounts of Xian Assembly
(teaching and prayers and breaking of bread). Also see Acts, ch. 20:7: an
assembly noted on Sunday. A nocturnal gathering. Paul teaches and breaks bread. Cullman argues that the setting of a meal
contains a word element here. Another
scholar argues that the only similarity bet. the word part of Xian assembly and
jewish Synogogue worship was the reading of scripture.
10/19/94:
Lecture
Eucharist:
The origins of the Euch. meal. Evidence for a separate ritual, the agape
meal, which was an actual meal. This was
not the Euch. Though in early Xianity,
they are not easily distinguished.
Common meals known in the Jewish and gentile contexts. N.T. gives an account of J.'s last supper
that reflects the Xian practice of the Euch.
So, distinction bet. the last supper and the Lord's supper. The accounts of the post-resurr. Xians reflect
their own practice. View the last supper
in the context of the other meals that Jesus shared with untouchables. Also, recall stories like the feeding of the
five thousand. Also, some post-resurr.
appearances of J.C. involve meals.
What
does Jesus Do?
Takes
bread, gave thanks, blesses, breaks bread (repeats with cup: takes cup, gives
thanks, and gives the cup.
Gregory
Dix: these seven actions of Jesus become the four fund. actions of the Xian
Euch.: take bread and wine, give thanks, break bread, distribute bread and
wine. He then argues (too far-Shattarer)
that these four stages: offertory, prayer of thanksgiving, fraction,
communion. But, not clear that there was
always an offeratory or fraction.
Shatterer: two fund. parts: giving thanks and distribution. Dix saw the offertory as essential in the
Euch. The reformation folks did not,
owing to the sacrificial lang. in the offertory which had accumulated in the
mediaval age. Concecration in the early
Xian time (Jewish context): the species themselves were not revered; the focus
was on the community meal, being linked to the meal of Jesu's last supper. No words of concecration of the elements
themselves. Key: the meal and its
relation to that of Jesus.
What
is the relation to a meal?
Paul:
bread, meal, and then cup.
Luke:
cup, bread, meal, then another cup.
Mk
and Mt: meal, bread, and cup.
Eventually,
the cup and bread come together, but in the Jewish context, there was a meal
included. Can we relate the latter to the Jewish meal practice? Was it a passover meal? A gathering a friends (a haburrah)? With Jn, it is not a passover meal. A sabbath meal? In these Jewish meals, in general, there was
a blessing (berakah) at the beginning over a cup, followed by a blessing for
the sabbath or partic. festival, followed by a blessing of the bread, which was
then broken and eaten. Then, the meal,
followed by a final blessing over a cup(Birkat ha-Mazon[3]). All we have is rabinical codified evidence
in the second century. Basic structure of Jewish meals: bread and
cup in relation to a meal. Lk's
sequence: cup, bread, meal, and cup, is most like the Jewish meal.
Xian
institution narratives:
Paul,
Lk, Mt., and Mk.
Mt.
and Mk: parallelism bet. cup and bread.
They were put next to each other after the meal. Not so with Paul and Lk.
The Didache: modeled after a Jewish
document. Heavy Jewish influence. Ch. 9: a double thanksgiving,
followed by a supplication. Reflects
basic Jewish bread, cup, and meal. Ch. 10: again,
a double thanksgiving followed by a supplication. Traids. Although, unlike the Jewish blessing
prayer, the thanksgiving comes first, followed by the blessing. Thanksgiving over blessing in emph. Could
also be the influence of the Zebah todan, the sacrifice of thanksgiving, which
is similar to the thanksgiving prayer in the Didache.[4] This sacrifice included food. Some argue that these chapters are for an
agape meal. Shatterer: the chapters are
on an early Xian euch. that took place in the context of a meal.
10/24/94:
Lecture
Eucharist:
Hippopolitus:
An
introductory dialogue (Sursum Corda[5]). Also called the preface dialogue. This exchange is about how it is possible
for one to offer prayer for many. From
Jewish prayer, the wording of which depended upon the number of people present. Implication of 'let us pray': do I have your
permission. The people give their
approval with 'amen'. You do it for us. In Xianity, it is in the form: 'the Lord be
with you', 'and also with you'. Then, the presentation of 'offering', gives
thanks over bread and cup, breaks bread and distributes bread and the cup. Presbyters assist the bishop. In a baptismal
eucharist, three cups, one of which contains milk and honey, the other wine,
and the other water. The prayer: begins
with giving thanks for Jesus Christ.
(like the Didoche). Offering the elements by which thanks is given.
Then, supplication ( a request) that the Holy Spirit be sent upon the
elements. This is in the form of an
epiclesis (invoking the Holy Spirit). A
cosecratory epiclesis (H.S. invoked upon the elements). Another kind of epiclesis: communion-invoke
the H.S. upon those whom will receive the elements. Hipp. contains both, but emphasies the
latter. A double structure:
thanksgiving to supplication. Condenses
the three part structure in the jewish blessing over the meal. The doxology contains mention of the trinity
(a century before Nicea).
So,
an introductory dialogue, thanksgiving (a preface, an institution narrative,
anamnesis (remembering)/oblation (an offering)), the supplication (the
epiclesis: an invocation calling upon the spirit), a doxology (a conclusion of
the prayer).
Prayer
of St.s Addai and Mari: no institution. From the third century. A tripartite
structure: praise of God, a thanksgiving for the salvation that god has brought
in Christ, and finally the supplication (invoking the H.S. to the species---an
epiclesis). Even moreso than in the
Didiche, influence of the Jewish meal blessing prayer (e.g. a tripartite
structure). In the east Syrian trad., an
institution gets added at the supplication.
The
West Syrian tradition also has a tripartite structure. Influenced by
trinitarian theol. Praise of God (emph
on creation: God the Father), thanksgiving (to God the Son), then
supplication(God the Holy Spirit). This
has become the model for contemporary Euch. prayers. In detail, there is an
introductory dialogue, followed by a preface that praises God, concluding with
the Sanctus. Then, the next section is
called the post-sanctus: a telling of salvation history (from Genesis to the
last Supper), an institution narrative, anamnesis/oblation, epiclesis,
intercession, doxology, and amen.
10/26/94:
Lecture
Eucharist:
The
Liturgy of St. Mark. From Alexandria . Was in Greek. In the Egyptian area the
vernacular would have been Coptic.
Distinctive features: the placement of the intercessions. Rather than following the epiclisis
(invocation of the H.S.), they follow the preface just before the Sanctus. Also distinctive: following the Sanctus, an
epiclisis prior to the institution narrative.
Then, another epiclisis. A double
epiclisis. This feature is in the Roman
canon as well.
The
Liturgy of St. Basil. East Syrian tradition. A preface, followed by thanksgiving
praises. Then, the Sanctus. Then, a recounting of salvation history with
a clear focus on Christ. Then, the
institution narrative that flows out of this recounting of salvation
history. Then, the anamenis
(remembering). Then, the epiclisis followed
by intercessions (petitions, using 'remember' asking God to remember the living
and the dead). Asking God to remember
someone or something is a way of praying for someone or something.
The
Byzantine Liturgy represents the major liturgical family in the East. It came out of the Greek-speaking areas of
the Eastern part of the Roman Empire . Constantinople
dominated this part of the empire. So
the Byzantine Liturgy is quite influential because it came from the capital (as
the Roman liturgy was influential in the West).
They called it the Divine Liturgy.
The Byzantine Rite could refer to the various liturgical rites in the
tradition, and could also include the theol. and canon law of that
tradition. Due to Muslim domination of
the East, the Eastern Xian church was prosecuted. Worship has been a cohesive dimension of it.
Due to this, the Byzantine rite has been relatively central in the Eastern Ch.
than the Roman rite has been in the Western
Church Vladimir 's
conversion brought Xianity to Russia
in the tenth century. The elaborate
splender in the ritual reflects the imperial aspect of the empire. Worship seen as the earthly imitation of
heaven. Neo-Platonic: the symbolic acts
have heavenly counterparts. So, mystery
is a motif in the Byzantine liturgy. The Roman litergy, in contrast, was
simpler and more practical. Liturgical
develops occur regionally, around centers of influence.
The
eastern churches are fragmented. Early
fourth century, the Nestorian Controversy.
Nestorius emph.ed Christ's humanity.
Two persons in him: human and divine.
(later dogma: two natures in one person). He argued that it was inappropriate to call
the virgin mary 'Theotokos, or 'God-bearer'.
He wanted to distinguish Christ's divine and human persons. The council of Ephesis decided agn. him. Some eastern churches ignored this (the
Nestorian Churches--some of the Caldean Churches). The other division in the east pertained to
the Monophysite controversy.
Monophysites emph. the divine nature of Christ. The council of Calcidan:
Christ as one person and two natures.
Much of the East stayed Monophysite (eg. the syrian orthodox
church).
The
split bet. East and West in 1054. The
Philioque clause: the H.S. proceeds from the Father and the Son. The eastern churches rejected 'and the
Son'. Also, West insisted in unleavened
bread, whereas the East used leavened bread.
Some Eastern Churches went back to Rome ,
becoming Catholic. Eg. the Armenian
Catholic church. The Melkites stayed
with the emperor (Rome ).
The
result of these divisions and the Muslim domination was that the Byzantine rite
dominated in Eastern Xianity . The eastern idea is of a communion of
churches, so the Bishop of
Constantinople has primacy over the other Bishops of the east, but no
jurisdictional power over them.
The
Byzantine Liturgy. An act of preparation
called the prothesis before the liturgy.
The bread and wine are prepared.
Then, the entrance (Enarxis). The
liturgy of the Word follows. Then, the
pre-anaphoral rites (eg. presentation of the gifts) followed by the
anaphora. Then, communion. The Word and the Anaphora are the cores of
the liturgy. Developments tend not to
occur in them. The other parts involve
movement. The tenth to fifteenth
centuries: the present form of the Byzantine churches and the elaborate rites
formed. The church: the left altar is
the Proshesis; the right one is the diakonicon.
The Iconostasis separates the altars from the laity. Icons on it: On the immediate right of the
royal doors is Christ;Mary is on the immediate left. The liturgical action is viewed as too holy
to see. The Ambo is the space behind the
wall; the Nave is in front of it where ther laity are. The prothesis used to take place in another
building. Reading took place in the Nave. Peaching used to take place at the Bishop's
throne at the altar. The liturgy is
organized around a series of appearances.
The first is called the little entrance.
The deacon brings the gospel book from the prothesis into the central
ambo. It was once a processional. It
takes place after the main entrance and just before the readings. The second entrance is that of the bread and
wine: the grand entrance, which is part of the pre-anaphoral rites. In effect, there are three liturgies going
on at once: the priest's liturgy, the deacon's prayers, and psalms of the
laity. Sometimes all three occur at
once. It is not a linear progression of
items as in the Western rite.
10/31/94:
Lecture
The
Byzantine Rite (cont):
The
structure: Prothesis, enarxis, word, pre-anophroial rites, anaphora (euch.
prayer) and communion. Development in
the liturgy took place at the enarxis, the pre-anapheral rites, and the
communion. These involved movement.
The
Byzantine rite is punctuated around a series of appearances. At the end of the enarxis, the deacon
processes to the altar with the Gospel book (the little entrance). The great entrance occurs after the
pre-anapheral rite when the priest processes the bread and wine. The little entrance was the original
beginning of the liturgy. It was
accompanied by the Trisagion (Holy is God. Holy the mighty one, Holy the
merciful one...) The refrain to the
psalm at the great entrance is called the Cherubicon (We who mystically
represent the Cheribum, do sing to the trinity...)--the assembly mystically
representing the angelic hosts as the Lord makes his appearance. At the communion, the psalm is called the
Komonican. There is a litany of peace at
the beginning of the rite. In the West,
it is in the prayers of the people (BCP), or after the Luterian Curie.
The
Latin Rite:
Roman,
North African, and Non-Roman Western (Gallican, Celtic, Mozarabic, and
Ambrosian) rites. The North African rite
developed before the Roman rite. But N. Africa
became Islamic and Xianity there declined.
The Gallican rite came from Gaul (today France
and part of Germany ).
Ceremonially elaborate. Variability in
prayers. Effusive rhetoric of prayer (more eastern in character)--Byzantine
influ. The Gallican rite influenced the
Roman rite. The Celtic rite, which was
the product of the scottish and irish monks.
Influ. from the other Latin rites awa the Eastern rite. The Moz. rite is
Spanish. The Ambrosian rite comes out of
N. Italy and was associated with St.
Ambrose.
The
Roman rite comes to prominance in the West.
Formed initially until the fifth and sixth centuries. The old Roman rite. The liturgy for the city of Rome and its immediate environments. Not simple as in Justin or the
Appolitus. The old Roman rite was
influenced on imperial patronage.
Worship no longer was in a domestic sphere, but had its own
buildings. Also, Constantine allowed Bishops to wear imperial
insignia as well as to have thrones in their churches. The old Roman rite was celebrated not only by
the bishop of Rome
but in various churches(tituli) that existed until the Titalian
revolution. The papal liturgy moved
around town (stational liturgy).
Episcopal liturgy tended to be stational. So, not just at that bishop's church (St.
John Latimer's church). Particular
masses were identified with particular stations. The Gregorian sacramental ???
Also,
prysbyters presided over mass in the Gelasion sacramental. There was also the Ordo Romanus Primus (ORI)
at 700 that was a sort of missil.
Beginning
in the 700's, the Roman liturgy moves into France . The Carolinian rulers, ending with
Charlemagne, sought to ensure their authority via the Holy
Roman Empire . A
romantization of what Rome
was. They wanted to import Roman Liturgy
to replace the Gallic rite. Charlemaigne
asked the Pope for the liturgy. The ORI
was sent to him. The copy sent is called
the Hadrianum. It was the papal
stational liturgy. so, it didn't have
material for local parishes. Not have
masses for daily masses. The suppliment
added by Charlemange is from the Gelasian sacrementary (much Gallic rite in
it). An intersection of Roman and
Gallican rites north of the Alps . In the eleventh century, the Holy Roman
Emperors (Germans) brought their hybrid rite back to Rome .
In the thirteenth century, the Francisions adopted it. Spread it through out the church going back
north. This new Roman rite does not mean
that there was uniform practice throughout the West. Copies of manuscripts contained regional
indigenous practices. So the Roman rite
prior to the Reformation involved distinctive local traditions. Then, a uniform liturgy from a central
authority, partly in reaction to the reformers' demand for change. The counter-reformation and the council of Trent which produced the
Missil Romano in 1570. Until 1969, it
was the rite for the Roman Mass. Trent allowed liturgical
traditions which had at least 200 years history. Also, particular practices of religious
orders were allowed to continue. Vatican
II reformed the rite of 1570.
The
structure of ORI: A solumn entrance at the Introit. Followed by
Kyrie, Gloria in exelisis Deo, a greeting and a collect. The beginning was originally just a
greeting. The entrance psalm and collect
were added with a Kyrie and Gloria later.
The entrance: involved court ceremonial (eg. a procession and a
throne). The ORI was for a papal
mass. As the Roman
empire fell apart, the Pope became the political ruler that held
the Roman world together. After the
fifth century, the Pope moved into the political vaccum. Silent prayer omitted from just before the
Collect. The Kyrie was added from the
Byzantine rite.
Following
the entrance: the epistle, the Gradual and aneluia, and the Gospel. Imperial ceremonial used (insense, etc.) with
the Gospel. No homily mentioned. No mention of the prayers of the
faithful.
In
the Latin rite, there used to be a Confiteor (the priest confesses his sin)
before the entrance procession.
11/2/94:
Lecture
The
Latin Rite (con't).
ORI
c. 700:
Solemn
entrance
Kyrie
Gloria
Collect(oratio)
Epistle
Gradual
(responsum)
Alleluia
Gospel
Presentation
of Gifts/Offertory Psalm (antiphon)
gifts of bread and wine from which
is selected the gifts to be offered
Oratio
super oblata (prayer over the gifts)
Eucharistic
Prayer (the Roman Canon)
elevation of the bread and cup at
the conclusion of the prayer
Lord's
Prayer
Commixture
(a piece of the bread from a previous mass--the sancta, is put in the cup to show the connection bet. the masses.
The
Peace
The
Fraction/Agnus Die in the Fraction, the
fermentum(pieces of bread are distributed to various parishes to be put into the
cups).
Communion/a
communion psalm (antihinal)
Oratio
ad complendum (post-communion prayer).
Dismissal
So,
the basic structure of the Roman Mass by the eighth century. Three psalms at the three soft spots (motion
involved). As this rite develops, there
is added an elevation at the time of concecration (at the words of
institution). The elevation at the end
of the Eucharistic prayer has the meaning of offering the prayer. Not a sacrificial aspect explicitly.
Unlike
the Byzantine rite, a number of variable parts (the propers) as well as parts
that remain the same (the ordinary).
Proper
elements change week by week: the Introit, collect, Epistle, Gradual, Alleluia
or Tract(during Lent), Sequences(pertaining to partic. feasts), Gospel,
Offeratory Psalm, the preface, the offeratory prayer, the Communion Psalm, the
post-communion proper.
Ordinary
elements: Kyrie eleison, Gloria(originally just at episcopate masses), the
Creed, Sanctus/Benedictus, the Roman Canon, the Lord's Prayer, the Agnus Dei,
the dismissal.
The
Roman Canon:
Begins
with theme of thanksgiving, and then supplication following the Sanctus. The language of sacrifice in the prayer may
have come out of a Jewish-Xian mileux.
Rather than asking the H.S. to come down, a sense of ascent to a
heavenly altar.
Priestly
apologies: devotional acts of the priest that became part of the Mass. The creed was a late addition to the mass
(eleventh century). Sequences was added
by monasteries. Also, ceremonial
additions. Increasingly became a
priestly act. Choir used to cover the
priest's prayer (e.g. the Canon). So,
Sanctus sang through the Canon. It was a
visual and audible event. The low mass
(no choir or other ministers)--just the priest and a server, became the Sunday
Mass. The people observed the
transaction bet. the priest and the server.
See: THe Allegorical
Interpretation of the Mass. The
tridentine mass is a low mass. The
missal made it possible for a priest to do a mass by himself. The mass was c. 1200 years old by the
reformation, but the context for interpreting it had changed.
The
controversy of the presence of Christ and the issue of the sacrificial language
were involved in this change in view (context).
On the nature of Christ's presence, the relationship between symbol and
reality (the relation bet the sign and the reality) was relevant. As early as the ninth century, the unity of
these things became problematic. In the
patristic era until the early middle ages, symbol and reality hold
together. The first dispute was in the
ninth century between Radbertus and Ratramnus.
Radbertus: the reality: the same body that was crucified and
resurrected. Ratramnus: symbolic: in a
figurative sense.
The
neo-Platonic view and the realistic categories of thought north of the
Alps(literal minded) collided.
In
the eleventh century, Lanfranc (reality) and Derengarius (symbolic).
The
fouth Lateran council in 1214, transubstantiation. Aristitilian thought used. 'Reality' limited to substance[6],
wheras Radbertus and Lanfranc included accidents to it. The underlying substance changes, whereas the
appearances remain.
The
sacrifice of the Mass: Metaphor of sacrifice and christ's saving work (his
death seen as a sacrifice), the Xian life (sac. self to God's will), and the
Last Supper (understood as a sacrifice, wherein Christ is offered). In the early Church, these notions of
sacrifice were present. But precisely
how they were related wasn't defined.
Jewish roots of the sacrifice lang.
The Eucharist as a fulfulment of O.T. notions of sacrifice. In the early Church. A metaphor.
In
the early middle ages, a change in the context of this language. The mass becomes a pictorial of Christ's
sacrifice. The allegorical interp. of
the mass as a rehersal of the life of Christ.
This pictorial understanding of the Mass as focused on Christ's
sacrifice such that it is seen as a representation of Christ's sacrifice. After the fourteenth century, more O.T. terms
used via a vis the priesthood. Xian
presbyters called priests. In the N.T.,
Christ and the whole people are referred to as priests. So, the individual priest related back to the
O.T. That figure functioned to give sacrifice.
The priest makes the body and blood present. This is part of the priest's sacrifice. In some instances, the notion that the priest
actually repeated the sacrifice of Christ.
Extreme: the Mass as a repetition of
Christ's sacrifice, became the basis of the reformation's reaction. Also, a change in viewing the Mass as a right
of the communal assembly to that of the priest.
The private mass at the middle ages.
The priest was seen to offer his sacrifice for particular benefits. The conferral of the patin and chalise to the
priest was considered what was essential to becoming a priest. Ability to offer sacrifice.
Prayers
by the priest (such as the prayer by the priest when he washes his hands) alone
are in the Tridentine missal.
11/7/94
Reformation:
Communal
understandings of liturgy developed so as to include the private Mass of the
priest, attaching benefit to the priest's sacrifice (e.g. special
intensions). Problem: the Roman Church
needed money from the Masses to keep solvent.
Scriptural
authority crucial for the reformers: against human traditions. But what then is the authority of the
reformers? Scriptural principle. For some reformers, everything in worship
requires scriptural mandate. The other
extreme in the reformers: more conservative: things pertaining to worship are
fine as long as they do not contradict scripture (e.g. Luther). Mt. 28: provides for baptism. Also, words for
the Eucharist are in scripture. Adiaphora : matters of liturgy on which
scripture is indifferent. For instance,
the use of incense, placement of Sanctus.
These things may be important for pastoral or traditional reasons, but
not for salvation. The proclamation of
God's Word is not adiaphora; rather, it is crucial to the operation of the
Gospel. The authority of scripture,
especially the interpretation of scripture that generates the doctrine of
justification, was viewed by the reformers as important. Redemption was interpreted by them as solely
the forgiveness of sins. Rejection of
all human works as guarantees of salvation, including worship itself. Worship was seen as a human tradition. The Word of God is the essence. Actions of worship caused trouble with Rome
and amougst reformers.
1520:
Babylonian Captivity of the Church.
Luther attacked the church's liturgical practices. Liturgy had become
corrupt. Meritorious, sacrificial, and
priestly action were seen as wrong. It
was mainly the sacrifice of the Mass which had been subject to abuse. For instance, the offeratory and canon of Mass,
private Masses, the buying and selling of Masses for intentions. Luther stressed divine saving action of Jesus
Christ. Worship for Luther was a dynamic
exercise of faith in response to the Word.
Sacrament was not an efficacious sign.
So, he was opposed to ex opere
operato (by the rite done--the doing makes it work). Instead, a word of promise was attached to
the signs of bread and wine to be used by faith. The Mass is not a sacrifice offered to God,
but is a gift of God. This gift is not
in the action of a priest mediating, but is activity of the priesthood of all
believers. Reforms to liturgy were
therefore needed. Extensive changes were
called for by some of the reformers.
Common
characteristics of the reformers: Preaching became the central element
(pertaining to the Word) in the liturgy.
Restoration of reading scripture in the vernacular was also an element
in the sacramental renewal. Also,
whatever the frequency of communion (weekly, monthly, quarterly), the people
received it much more frequently when it was offered. Conduct of the Lord's Supper focused on
hearing the words of Jesus. Reception of both kinds (bread and wine), rather
than just the bread. Congregational
participation was stressed--the most notable feature being the singing of hymns
and psalms. A tendency to reduce
ceremony, replacing it with didactic prayers and exhortations--teaching the
people about their faith.
Divisions
between reformation traditions: The relation of worship (esp. sacraments) to
God's saving action in Chist. Key: are
sacraments a means of grace? Also,
differences in the role of scripture in determining liturgical practice, as
noted above.
Luther
on the Mass:
1519:
A treatise--Blessed Sacrament of the Holy
and True Body of Christ. The
sacrament is explained by three things: sign, or signum (bread and wine), the thing signified, or res significata (exchange of sin and
suffering for grace and salvation; communion with Christ and with all
believers--all the saints), and faith (faith
must be present for the sacrament to work).
1520:
treatises on the New Testament (e.g. Mass vis a vis scripture) and on the
Babylonian captivity. The captivities:
the Roman Church had kept the people from receiving both kinds and the Church
had gone beyond its rightful authority in having imposed a single explanation
of Christ's presence in the Eucharist (transubstantiation). Luther didn't question the belief in Christ's
presence in the Eucharist, but the matter of the Church's rightful
authority. Some called Luther's stance
on the Eucharist 'consubstantiation': the presence of Christ is a mystery, so
it can't be definitively explained. The
elements of bread and wine remain along with this presence. A third captivity: the selling and buying of
Masses. Mass for Luther was an object of
faith, rather than a work to be earned.
Specifically, objects in the Mass to be sacrificed. His understanding of
the Mass is as a Testament--Mass as a promise. This was believed by Luther to
be coherent with Christ's basic understanding of salvation. Dynamic between
God's Word and human faith is fundamental. The Word of promise, to be received
by faith, constitutes the reality of faith.
The Word is connected to elements of the Mass (e.g. bread and wine). The
Word is heard and the elements are ingested. So, nothing should prevail against
the words of institution.
Implementation
of his solution: Formula Missae. Not a liturgical book, but a treatise for reforming
the abuse. Shows how to use the books then currently available, selectively.
Also, a description of how to perform the Mass.
Also, a description of how to perform the Mass.
The
Service of the Word: describes the basic elements of the Roman Mass:
Introit
Kyrie
Gloria
Collect
Epistle
(Latin)
Gradual
Alleluia
Gospel
(Latin)
Nicene
Creed
Sermon
(vernacular)
Luther
retains this basic outline, but makes the following changes: In the Gradual, the entire psalm should be
sung. Also, the sermon could be before
the introit, following the model of the medieval preaching service. The Word of God is at the heart of the
eucharistic liturgy and must be done by faith.
Changes
to the Service of the Eucharist: He
omitted all offertory prayers at the preparation of the elements because they
suggested a sacrifice was to be offered.
The words of institution go in where the proper preface would have gone.
The sanctus and benedictus were thus after the words of Christ. The people would experience much the same as
they used to, but would hear the words of Christ. No fraction, as it suggested a
sacrifice. He removed a lot of the
Canon, except for the words of institution, sanctus and benedictus. Christ's words were central to Luther. Communion following in reception of the
words.
The Deutsche Masse of 1526. Luther assumed that a reformed Latin Mass
would still be appropriate in many settings, such as in schools and urban
areas. But the vernacular Mass was also needed--others did it first. He
expected both to exist side by side. German was for the great unwashed. He was more keen on the Apostles' Creed than
the Nicene Creed, so he made his own hymn version of it. Congregational song was important to
Luther. The eucaristic elements were
prepared during the creed-singing. No
ceremony in the preparation. Also, no
eucharistic prayer except for the words of institution. Instead, there is a paraphrase of the Lord's
Prayer and an admonition to communicants(mentioning remembering and giving
thanks, but not in the form of a prayer).
For followers of Luther in later liturgies, the exhortation is
important. Luther also wanted the distribution to take place while words of
Christ are said, so the bread is distributed while the cup is blessed. Traditional German songs were sung during
distribution. He kept the elevation because
it presents the sacrament as Christ's presence and signifies faith.
Luther
believed that the cult of saints got in the way of Christ, so he frowned on
devotional practices such as the rosary.
The
priest still celebrated with his back to the people. Elevation is for the benefit of the
people--so they can see it. So, there were
still sacrificial notions, but it was not the priest offering Christ to God;
rather, it was Christ offering himself to God as a high priest in heaven--an
eternal presentation to God of his sacrifice once made on the cross.
Each
territory/principality in Germany (and Europe) had its own Lutheran church
order, following either Deutsche Masse or Formula Massae. Some mixtures. They are all different but similar.
11/9/94
Reformation(cont):
The
Reformed Tradition:
The
'Reformed' church names were of various types: Dutch and Presbyterian, for
instance. Influenced by Anglicanism and
Free Churches such as the Anabaptists, English Puritans, independents, and
baptists.
There
were two sources of influence in the Reformed Tradition: Zwingli at Zurich and
Calvin at Geneva. Zwingli was a
contemporary of Luther. He was a
priest. He was killed in battle in
1531. A radical application of the
scriptural principle--he wanted to base all worship on scriptural
authority. As for Luther, he emphasized
the doctrine of justification by faith.
He eliminated musical instruments from churches on the basis of N.T.
evidence. The organ was an icon
(iconoclastic). Calvin was a
second-generation reformer. He
represents a mediating position between Luther and Zwingli. He was not a priest but a lawyer. He helped to set up the theocratic
constitution in Geneva. He leaned
towards Zwingli on instrumental music but was influenced by early church fathers. He was also influenced by Bucer in Strasbourg
where Calvin was exiled for a few years.
The French-speaking congregation in Strasbourg adopted Bucer's German
liturgy.
Differing
understandings of the externals of worship:
Zwingli: no external action can purify the
soul. Only spiritual reality counts.
So, sacraments and ceremonies have a very limited significance. Fucus should be on the activity of God's
Word, especially in the emphasis on preaching.
Sacraments stimulate the memory of Christ and fed fellowship,
thanksgiving and witness of congregation.
Calvin: like Luther, located God's
saving action in direct relation to sacraments
as well as the Word. God conforms
divine mercy to human capacity and imparts spiritual things beneath visible
signs. The Holy Spirit uses visible
signs to draw humans to God. Liturgical simplicity sought, to return to original/primative church
practice. Music was limited to
metrical psalms. Calvin wanted weekly sacraments, but Zwingli wanted a centrality of
preaching and only quarterly sacraments. Calvin had a greater influence
than Zwingli theologically; Zwingli had a greater influence than Calvin on the
view toward the sacraments. So, the emphasis on preaching prevailed.
Controversy
over the presence of Christ in the Eucharist split the reformation between
Luther and others. Luther rejected a
change in the nature of the elements, but believed in the real presence of
Christ's body and blood in and under the elements of bread and wine. He used the analogy of the incarnation: union
of two natures of Christ. The real
presence is objective: received by the faithful and faithless. Not dependent on faith. The reformed
tradition, however, viewed the reception of the body and blood to be dependent
upon the presence of faith; if you don't believe in it, it isn't there. Two issues: is it a spiritual or a corporeal
presence? What is the relation of the body and blood to the elements of bread
and wine? Calvin: presence of Christ is corporeal, received with bread and
wine. Zwingli: purely spiritual, with
nothing to do with the bread and wine.
Luther: presence is corporeal, in and under the bread and wine.
Zwingli: faith apprehends Christ in divinity.
The Lord's Supper is an occasion for communion with Christ in
faith. This presence has nothing to do
with bread and wine, or with the humanity of Christ---which is in heaven, so
cannot be here with us. A radical
distinction between signum and res
signa, between sacrament and faith.
So, for Zwingli, it is a spiritual presence.
All reformers (including Luther) tended to
discourage communion by young children because of the element of faith.
Calvin: Spiritual real presence. A mediator position. The presence of Christ is not in the
bread and wine (agrees here with Zwingli and disagrees here with Luther's
doctrine of ubiquity--that Christ's humanity is everywhere; presence is not
saving until the Word of God makes it so)
Calvin: through the action, the Holy Spirit brings those of faith to the
heavenly altar to feed on the body and blood of Christ. Alongside the real consumption of elements,
there is spiritual consumption of the body and blood. Pneumatological outlook. Both
spiritual and corporal real presence that takes place by the power of the
Spirit.
Zwingli's
liturgy: four prayers were designed to remove the idea of sacrifice,
emphasizing the spiritual nature of the supper.
It is a characteristic feature of reformed rite to bring the institution
narrative and the communion close together.
1525: Separation by Zwingli of the word and
sacrament. This was considered to be
radical. Two rites, published
separately: Word and Communion. The
liturgy was no longer modeled on the Mass.
Most other reformers retained the word and table. Zwingli's model for the service of the word
was the medieval preaching service (in vernacular prose). It included the Hail Mary, the reading of
scripture, a sermon, commemoration of the departed, confession, and a
pardon. The order for the Lord's Supper
may have been modeled on vernacular communion rites of the Middle Ages. Zwingli had communion four times per year:
Xmas, Easter, Pentecost, and Sept. 11(feast of Felix and Regula, patron saints
of Zurich).
Bucer:
'The Great Prayer'. Three versions of
this prayer, all of the same structure.
Prayer is totally supplication (no thanksgiving).
Calvin:
His 'Geneva Litugy' was relatively uninfluencial in the reformed
tradition. Confession was at the
beginning, partly due to the influence of prose (the whole assembly could be
absolved). Metrical psalmody was a
distinctive feature of the Reformed tradition in general. Preference for scriptural words rather than
paraphrases such as Luther's hymns.
Calvin's prayer for communion was also distinctive. The form is up to the minister, but is
intended to be an epiclesis upon thereading of the Word. This should be done before the lesson and the
sermon (also done in early Eastern liturgies).
The lesson was a single lectis
contiua through a book, usually a Gospel.
No Church year observance except for major feasts. Intercessions follow the model of Bucer's
great prayer. In Bucer's liturgy, the
elements are set out during the intercessions.
Calvin: the intercessions are done directly from the pulpit immediately
after the sermon. The reformed communion
exhortation was typical of the reformed liturgies; replaced the other
eucharistic prayers. For Calvin, the
institution narrative was at the beginning, so more of a gap before
distribution than in the other reformed liturgies. Policing the table related to church
discipline in Geneva (where it was more developed than elsewhere in the
reformed tradition). People had to
present a token showing their worthiness for communion. Self knowledge and recognition of unworthiness
is required for reception of communion.
11/14/94
Reformation(cont):
Thomas
Cramner:
He
directed the liturgical reforms of the 1549 and 1552 versions of the Book of
Common Prayer. In 1532, he had been
installed as Archbishop of Canterbury by Henry VIII. Political control of the Church was important
during Henry's reign. Under Henry, the
Monarch became the head of the Church.
Cramner at that time had a connection with the German Reformation at
Nuremberg (via marriage). There was no
liturgical reform under Henry. Under
Edward VI in 1546, liturgical reform became possible. Cramner's influence increased. From 1547-52, Cramner radicalized liturgical
reform. In 1552, Queen Mary (a Roman
Catholic) was installed. She had Cramner
burnt in 1556. Cramner had been a
reforming bishop, which was rare in the Reformation (the Church of Sweden is
the only other example).
The
Book of Common Prayer was a new kind of liturgical book. It was a book for the people as well as for
the priest. There was no distinction
here. It was a comprehensive liturgical
book in the vernacular.
Sources
of the Book of Common Prayer (BCP):
1.
The Lutheran Church Orders from Osiander.
2.
Hermann's Simple and Religious Consultation.
He was the Archbishop of Cologne.
His work was based on Bucer. It
influenced the shape of Cramner's communion rite. Hermann had not lived long enough to put it
into practice in Cologne.
3.
The Eastern Liturgical Tradition: The 1528 Byzantine liturgy of John
Chrysotom. The epiclesis before the
institution, as well as the retention of a eucharistic prayer, came from this
tradition.
4.
The Sarum rite: the English version of the Roman rite as practiced in England.
Before
1549, there had been some initial reforms.
For example, in 1547, the Legal Injunctions required the readings to be
done in the vernacular and the restoration of the cup. In 1548, The Order of Communion was made in
the vernacular. Also, penitential
warnings (as in Calvin's liturgy) showed a concern for a prepared
communicant. A general confession was
added, as well as 'Comfortable Words', as well as a prayer of preparation for
communion (e.g. the Prayer of humble access).
The
1549 BCP: Of the Word, it followed the Serum Rite. At the offeratory, those who stayed would go
to the choir area. Money was added as a
gift to be brought up to the altar with the bread and wine. From the Serum: and introductory dialogue, a
preface, and the Sanctus and Benedictus.
Then, like the Roman Canon, supplicatory intercessions (although that
for the saints was dropped in 1552).
Then, an epiclisis (unlike Rome, prior to the words of institution),
followed by the institution narrative (removing the non-scriptural elements
found in the Roman Canon's version).
After the narrative, an anamesis, or oblation, stating that what is
offered is not the sacrament but is the communicants themselves. A reformation
view of the sacrifice. This was followed
by the Lord's Prayer, Peace, Invitation to confession, Comforting words, the
prayer of humble access, and the Agnes Die.
There
was a view that the 1549 BCP did not go
far enough in removing the problematic Roman views of the sacrifice and
presence. So, a 1552 BCP. In the 1549 BCP, Cramner had left a broad
range of interpretations open, excluding only radical puritan and Roman views. There was a view that Cramner was a
Zwinglian. There was also a view that
the '49 BCP was a comprehensive formulation and that it was a political
compromise. There was a view that
Cramner held a Calvinist view of the presence (a spiritual feeding). But there were those who thought that he held
a Lutherian view. The language in the
'49 BCP was sufficiently ambigious for these views to come up. For instance, the Body and Blood is stated to
be 'unto us', but consecration was retained.
Also, in the prayer of humble access, 'eat flesh' was included.
In
the Roman Catholic view as stated by Gardner, the BCP of '49 had
transubstantiation in it, as well as a propitiatory sacrifice (remembrance of
the saints and the dead within the eucharistic prayer). Martin Bucer recommended further reforms.
The 1552 BCP held less resemblance to
the Sarum Mass, going in the reformed direction. For instance, the following word changes were
enacted: "altar' to 'table', and the word 'Mass' was dropped. Also, the distance from the particular
elements (bread and wine) to the eucharist was increased. The Table was moved to the center of the
Church. The Black Rubric prohibited interpreting kneeling as adoring the
elements. Also, saints and the dead
were not mentioned. No benedictus (e.g.
'Blessed is he who comes in the name of the Lord...). The intercessions were separated from the
eucharistic prayer. The relation between
Christ's body and blood and the elements was less clear (more Calvinist). In the words of distribution, the presence was
not stated. There was an oblation but no
anamnesis. In the 1559 BCP, Elizabeth
combined the '49 and '52 words of distribution.
11/16/94
The
Contemporary Eucharist:
Puritanism:
out of reaction to the Church of England, it was against fixed formula
prayer. Prayer should be
spontanious. A Calvinist influence. In 1645, the Puritans were in charge in
England. The Westminister Directory for
Worship was a guide to how to worship, without specific prayers being
given. Presbyterianism has a worship book
(not canonical) as well as the directory (which is canonical).
1600's
and 1700's: Pietism in Germany and Westley's emphasis on regular celebration of
the eucharist.
1800's: A bendectine revivalism. Prospel Gueranger, for instance, revived the
Gegorian chant. There was also the
Oxford movement in England. E.B. Pusey
restored the ceremonial of the Middle Ages to the BCP. In the Lutheran Church, Wilhelm Lohe restored
the Middle Ages ceremonial. In the
reformed churches of the U.S., the Mercerberg Theology concerned itself with
restoring traditional forms of worship, linking this to social problems. See, for instance, Phillip Schaaf and John
Nevin.
1900's:
An unprecidented upheaval in liturgical reform.
Vatican Council II: influenced by
American Protestantism. The modern
liturgical movement overall emphasized the participation of the laity. Lambert Beudvin (a Benedictine) advocated
this. Worship had been pastor-oriented.
Vatican
II: The Sacrosantum Concilium (on the
Constitution of the Liturgy), 1963:
Simpliciity and comprehensibility of rites, a change in the readings, and
an increased emphasis on the homily as a central part of the liturgy of the
word. Intercessary prayer was
restored. Presuming that Latin still would be used, the use of the vernacular in
certain circumstances was allowed.
With regard to communion, regular reception was encouraged. Because laity had been in the practice of
taking communion from the reserved sacrament as a devotional before the
concecration of the Mass, the consumption of the sacrament consecrated at that
Mass was encouraged. The reception of both kinds/elements was
allowed. Reception of just one element had been justified on the basis of the
doctrine of Concommitance: the whole of Jesus Christ is in each element. Finally, adapting the rite to the particular
culture was emphasized, while retaining the universality of the Latin Rite.
Protestantism: an evangelical revival. Charles Finney, for instance, advocated 'New
Measures' which stressed pragmatism (whatever brings the sinner to salvation). General issue: the status of communal worship
where the individual is thought to arrive at his theology outside of it and
then use it as a tool. Second, as the
media changes from 'word' to 'visual', will the 'word' liturgies conform to
this trend?
The
Church Year:
Colors,
hymns, and prayers are associated with such change, but it is really the
readings with which the church year is associated. Specifically, association of the Gospel
passages to the time of year (the marking and experience of time). The origins of Xn marking of time are found
in the Gospels themselves. For instance,
the passion narratives are related to the Xn practice of passover.
On
sacred time, Eliade argued that it is related to the origins of things. For instance, the New Year's celebration is a
return to... According to Eliade, in
Judaism and Xnity, there is an emphasis on a return to a saving event (exodus
and the passion, respectively), rather than to origins (of the cosmos). But, the Biblical view of time sees history
not apart from the promise made by God. So, a memory of Jesus Christ, for
instance, is connected to the historical Jesus.
Liturgical
calendars: They had been used to universalize a liturgical celebration that had
been a local occurrence. For instance,
the celebration of a martyr was at first only to be done at his grave. By the calandar, one could celebrate it
elsewhere because 'time' was emphasized over 'place'. Also, the structure of Holy Week: it
originated in Jerusalem in the 300's, then it spread via its place in the
liturgical calander.
Western
Xnity's church year differs from that of the East. In the East, there is no Advent season. There are differences between Western
denominations on the extent of observance (the number of holy days
observed). For instance, the Puritans
maintained only Sunday feasts. So, they did not celebrate Christmas or Easter
feasts. In the Reformed tradition, there
were Sunday and major feasts, but no seasons.
The
liturgical year is not logical. This is so because it developed over many years
and was influenced by different localities.
The liturgical year is theologic: a way of viewing the mystery of Jesus
Christ (the paschal mystery).
11/28/94
The
liturgical year is theologic rather than chronologic in its time sequence. For instance, the Gospels do not agree on the
time of Jesus' life, death, and resurrection. So, the liturgical year doesn't
fit a set chronology. Rather, it fits a
pascal mystery. All Xn feasts are
related to this mystery. In the fourth
century, a retrospective rather than an eschatological piety in the
church. But, there had been historical
motivations (celebrate feasts as tied to a historical date) since the beginning
of the Church. Yet the point of Xnity is
not that what happened to Jesus occurred long ago, but that those events are
real now. So, a historic chronology is
not sufficient (because it is happening now) or appropriate (because the
Gospels don't agree on the historic chronology).
The
Xn year is a cycle of Sundays (recurring weekly gatherings) of two cycles:
temporal (immovable) and sanctoral (movable).
In the temporal cycle, there are two sub-cycles: the Easter Cycle, which
includes lent, Easter(The Triduum--three days from Holy Thursday to Easter
evening), an Pentacost, and the Christmas Cycle, which includes Advent, Xmas,
and the Ephany(the gifts of the magi) and sometimes it extends to the Baptism
of Jesus. The time between these two
cycles is ordinary time which is not a season (a season must have a major
feast). In the sactoral cycle are
included saint days.
Prior
to the fourth century, there was a pattern including Sundays, Easter Sunday
(the Pascha, or Passover), and some martyr days. In the second century, there were two Xn
Pascha celebrations: The Easter Sunday
tradition, which focused on the resurrection, and the Quartodeciman tradition.
This tradition celebrated the Xn Pascha on the day of Jesus's death--on the
fourteenth of the first month(Nissan)--on the day of the slaying of the
lambs. That evening, the Jewish Passover
began. This tradition was the earliest
of the two. They would fast on the
fourteenth and have eucharist on the morning of the fifteenth (not necessarily
a Sunday).
When
the Xn Church switched to a solar calander, it attempted to get this date. The Roman Church decided to have Easter on a
Sunday, because it was dissasociated with the Jewish calendar.
[1]So
today when the assembly views the bap., it would seem that the rationale for
the confirmation is no longer valid. CLG
[2]Bap.
vis a vis original sin disrupted the original bap. process and also changed the
meaning of bap (from a choice to repent and convert to a metaphysical change in
state vis a vis sin). Also, this
disrupted the rites of passage. CLG
[3]Begins
with a blessing(oriented to God as creator), then a seal, then a prayer of
thanksgiving(todah) for revelation from God, then a seal, then a
petition(asking God to have mercy on Isreal.
It is eschatological, anticipating the restoration of the house of
David).
[4]Me:
note that the Jewish sacrifice of atonement was not related in the
Didache. This is congruent with Greer's
view that early Xians saw Christ as giving them victory over death (something
to give thanks for) rather than over sin (something involving atonement).
[5]Up
with your hearts.
[6]The
Essence of a thing. Not available to the
senses. Underlies the physical
attributes.
